What characteristics make Of Mice and Men an example of Modernist literature?

One characteristic that makes Of Mice and Men representative of Modernist literature is the relationships that are built in the shadow of the American Dream.

It is important to note that, while Of Mice and Men was published in 1937, the sociological concept of "the American Dream" was born in 1931by James Truslow Adams in a book called The American Epic in which he talked about "a land in which life should be better...

One characteristic that makes Of Mice and Men representative of Modernist literature is the relationships that are built in the shadow of the American Dream.

It is important to note that, while Of Mice and Men was published in 1937, the sociological concept of "the American Dream" was born in 1931 by James Truslow Adams in a book called The American Epic in which he talked about "a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone." Steinbeck was introducing the American in Of Mice and Men, not reshaping it as it was only six years old.

Virginia Woolf defined Modernism as literature which displayed the power of change.  She termed these as "shifts" in all forms of life: “All human relations shifted...and when human relations change there is at the same time a change in religion, conduct, politics, and literature.”  The presence of these shifts and the willingness to explore them are critical to the definition of Modernist literature. Specific characteristics of Modernist literature are:

• a sense of despair


• a changing worldview


• a sense of socio-cultural instability


• meaningless social values


• a confused sense of identity


• futility of meaning


• skepticism


• the absence of clarity and order


• a sense of chaos and confusion ("Modernism," University of Nevada Las Vegas)  

Steinbeck's novella is not concerned with how the American Dream can be achieved. Rather, it focuses on the difficulty of the dream and the pain of not achieving it.  Of Mice and Men represents Modernist literature because its heroes are not successes. Rather, they are two "bindle stiffs" who have nothing to their name and fail to accomplish their modest dreams. One of them is little and wiry while the other one is large and mentally challenged.

In focusing on two transient migrant workers and not on a traditional hero, Steinbeck's work represents an example of Modernist literature because they live in despair in a fragmented social group and experience fragmentation of their personalities: neither George nor Lenny can find and be what they really are.  Through its depiction of how the poor struggle and fail to achieve their dreams, Of Mice and Men represents Modernist literature just as it does in its depiction of political, social, and economic shifts, both of which build the framework of how the characters' relationships are built in the shadow of the American Dream.

How are Macbeth and Macduff similar? How are they different?

At the start of the play, both Macduff and Macbeth are similar in that they display great courage and skill on the battlefield. They also share a similar loyalty to king Duncan and their beloved Scotland, since they are prepared to sacrifice their lives in defence against the traitor's Macdonwald, the thane of Cawdor and the Norwegian forces led by Sweno. We hear glowing reports of their skill in fighting off and ultimately vanquishing the enemy. The two men are both held in high esteem by the king and his subjects alike.

The primary difference between the two is that Macbeth is driven by selfish ambition and he wishes to obtain the ultimate rank, by fair means or foul. He formulates an evil plot to get rid of not only his king but also his cousins, Malcolm and Donalbain, since he is closest in relation to the king after them. With them out of the way, the crown would become his. Macduff, on the other hand, is loyal to his country and does not have any selfish, over-riding ambition. Even when Malcolm tests him to see whether he would be loyal to his king, no matter how corrupt he may be, Macduff says that he would rather go into exile than serve such a tyrant. Clearly, his country means more to him than any man, even himself.

This is a sentiment absent in Macbeth. Macbeth becomes a ruthless tyrant. He murders all and sundry whom he deems a threat to his position. He has no qualms in assassinating even his closest allies such as Banquo. He shows scant remorse when he has Macduff's entire family, servants and all, cruelly murdered. He does not even seek redemption from Macduff. He has become so paranoid and filled with blood lust that he shows no exception in who he has executed. He is cruel and unforgiving. Even when Lady Macbeth dies, he is more matter of fact in his response than compassionate.

Macduff, though, is completely overwhelmed and distraught on hearing reports about his family's murder. He is then even more determined to confront the perpetrator, Macbeth and slay him for committing such a horrendous evil. Furthermore, it is evident that Macduff cares about his family, even though he had abandoned them to seek help in England to redress the anarchy in Scotland.

Macbeth has only his wife and has to endure the thought of leaving behind a barren crown. Where Macduff's relationship with his family seems of a more loving and caring nature, Macbeth's relationship with his wife seems more practical and is guided and sustained solely by their common greed. There are hardly any scenes in the play where the two express great love for one another - however, they are inseparable partners in crime.

When Macbeth and Macduff confront each other in the final scenes of the play, it is clear that both men are unrelenting and would fight to the very end, a sign of their determination and resolve. There is a difference though, Macbeth is driven by the witches' predictions. He has been encouraged by the fact that 'none of woman born shall harm Macbeth.' He emphatically believes that he has the upper hand in his confrontation with Macduff, who shatters this idea by telling him that he had been 'from his mother's womb untimely ripp'd'. At this, Macbeth realises that he had been deceived by the witches' predictions and he then damns them. Macduff kills and then beheads him.

In this also, it is clear that the two men are different. Macbeth had placed his destiny almost entirely in the hands of the witches and believed everything they told him. He was gullible and foolish in this regard. Macduff, on the other hand, fled Scotland and took charge of his own destiny. He went to England to seek assistance so that he may free his beloved Scotland from the ravages imposed on it by the tyrant Macbeth. Unlike Macduff, it is also clear that Macbeth had lost love for his country and was guided solely by greed and self-interest.

 Ultimately then, Macduff's noble actions deserve our respect and admiration whislt Macbeth's ruthless and vile nature deserves our contempt.

Why were both the French and British governments sympathetic to the Confederacy during the Civil War?

There was considerable sympathy among wealthy Britons for the Confederacy, but generally the working classes favored the Union in the conflict, as did much of the liberal middle class, which was strongly anti-slavery. The French and British governments, especially Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, were not all that sympathetic to the Confederacy, at least not enough to justify intervention in the Civil War. Rather, at the beginning of the war both governments calculated that their economic...

There was considerable sympathy among wealthy Britons for the Confederacy, but generally the working classes favored the Union in the conflict, as did much of the liberal middle class, which was strongly anti-slavery. The French and British governments, especially Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, were not all that sympathetic to the Confederacy, at least not enough to justify intervention in the Civil War. Rather, at the beginning of the war both governments calculated that their economic and strategic interests might be aligned with those of the South. Both the British and the French had developed a thriving industry in textiles, and they depended on Southern cotton to keep the mills running. For this reason, the Union blockade, some thought, would be ruinous to the economies of these nations. Dire predictions of a "cotton famine" never materialized, however, largely because there had been a glut of cotton in the years preceding the war, and because Great Britain was able to turn to India and Egypt for cotton. Generally, France was following Great Britain's lead, and while there were a few diplomatic crises (the Trent affair, in particular) the British government generally kept out of the conflict. The Emancipation Proclamation, promulgated in 1863, redefined the conflict as a struggle to destroy slavery as well as preserving the Union. After this, there was little chance that either government would intervene in the war.

Why was lighting a cigarette risky for the sniper?

In Liam O'Flaherty's short story, "The Sniper" (1923), the reasons stated by the first-person narrator, the sniper, are shown specifically in this passage from the story:

Then he paused for a moment, considering whether he should risk a smoke. It was dangerous. The flash might be seen in the darkness, and there were enemies watching. He decided to take the risk. Placing a cigarette between his lips, he struck a match, inhaled the smoke hurriedly...

In Liam O'Flaherty's short story, "The Sniper" (1923), the reasons stated by the first-person narrator, the sniper, are shown specifically in this passage from the story:

Then he paused for a moment, considering whether he should risk a smoke. It was dangerous. The flash might be seen in the darkness, and there were enemies watching. He decided to take the risk. Placing a cigarette between his lips, he struck a match, inhaled the smoke hurriedly and put out the light. Almost immediately, a bullet flattened itself against the parapet of the roof. The sniper took another whiff and put out the cigarette.

Instantly, the story shows that the sniper's concerns were all legitimate and that lighting the cigarette has endangered his life. 

In general terms, lighting a cigarette would be risky for a sniper because by definition a sniper is someone who is trying to remain hidden and unseen while shooting at another human.

If the sniper is operating during the daytime, smoke might be seen by the person being targeted and give away the sniper's position. If at night, both the flame created by a match or lighter, and the glow at the end of the cigarette could be seen.

With today's technology (not available to the sniper in O'Flaherty's story), if human targets are aware of potential snipers in an area, they could also have heat-tracking equipment which would pick up the heat from a person in hiding or from a match, lighter, or cigarette. In addition, the sniper could be distracted by the light of their own match and not see their target if the person happened to come into view. These are general reasons it is risky to light a cigarette if a sniper wants to remain hidden.

In O'Flaherty's story, the sniper is a member of the Republicans, aiming at an unknown Free-Stater during the Irish Civil War. The action occurs in the city of Dublin. When the sniper successfully kills his enemy, he discovers the dead man is his own brother. This story was published in a London magazine called The New Leader.

Explore some of the ways Steinbeck presents good and bad characteristics of Curley's wife in Of Mice and Men.

The only woman in Steinbeck's novella, Curley's wife in Of Mice and Men is but a genitive of her husband. As such, she is less of an individual; in fact, some critics view her as an archetypal Eve

GOOD CHARACTERISTICS

• pretty, shapely


• sociable


• young

NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS

• flirtatious, seductive


• apparently naïve about consequences of her presence as the only woman on the ranch, but probably aware of this


• cruel to Crooks by her racial threats


• shallow in thoughts and desires


• "jail-bait" for the workers


• a temptress


• shallow, self-absorbed


• uneducated


• selfish, self-centered; she does not love Curley


• unhappy with her life and marriage


• lonely


• without real talent


• unrealistic


• conflict creator

Starting with her introduction into the narrative, Curley's wife seems a disruptive force to the fraternity of the men. George remarks that she is "jail-bait" because she is so young. Her youth causes her to push limitations by speaking playfully and imitating movie stars with her hair in "little rolled clusters" and her red fingernails, rouged lips and heavily made up eyes. In addition, she imitates the movements of the seductress: "She smiled archly and twitched her body." 
When she does not get attention, her demeanor changes. When Crooks prohibits her from entering, saying she has no right to enter "a colored man's room," for example, Curley's wife turns on him with racial slurs and threats:

"Listen, N****r....You know what I can do to you if you open your trap?"

Because she is uneducated and without any job or hobby, Curley's wife has nothing to occupy her time and mind. Therefore, she seeks attention outside herself. Her naïveté causes her to toy with Lennie as she does not understand that although Lennie is mentally-challenged and childlike in his enjoyment of puppies and keeping mice in his pocket, he can become aroused as easily as any man. 

How do Captain Keller and Annie Sullivan compare/contrast in The Miracle Worker?

In The Miracle Worker, Annie Sullivan and Captain Arthur Keller, Helen's father, are both similar and different.  If we look at the similarities, both love Helen, though the captain hides his feelings more than Annie does.  Having Helen, both are determined to help her make progress as Miss Sullivan and Captain Keller want her to be able to help herself.  Both want success.

These two dominant figures in Helen's life are also very different. ...

In The Miracle Worker, Annie Sullivan and Captain Arthur Keller, Helen's father, are both similar and different.  If we look at the similarities, both love Helen, though the captain hides his feelings more than Annie does.  Having Helen, both are determined to help her make progress as Miss Sullivan and Captain Keller want her to be able to help herself.  Both want success.

These two dominant figures in Helen's life are also very different.  Miss Sullivan is determined to bring Helen into some kind of calm and to follow what Miss Sullivan is asking her to do.  Helen has long been able to bully anyone into doing as she wants including eating off the plates of anyone at the table.  Annie must fight both the determined Helen and Helen's father as he would indulge his daughter.  As a captain during the Civil War, he is used to giving orders and having them followed, but he cannot seem to get control of Annie as she does what is best for Helen and defies the Captain.  Leading to constant conflict on how to handle Helen, Annie finally has to appeal to Helen's mother, Kate, for help.  The father wants to help his daughter learn, but totally disagrees with Annie's methods as he is required to learn to say no to the child.

Eventually, the breakthrough is made with Helen's sharp mind, and Annie and Captain Sullivan can work together to help Helen learn.

In the novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, what do the characters in the story think about Miss Maudie?

Jem, Dill, and particularly Scout generally adore Miss Maudie. She is like an aunt but they (Scout and Jem) clearly enjoy her company more than they do with Aunt Alexandra. Miss Maudie allows them to play anywhere in her yard as long as they don't kill the flowers. She makes cakes for them and when Jem and Dill are off doing "boys only" things, Scout goes to Miss Maudie: 

In summertime, twilights are long and...

Jem, Dill, and particularly Scout generally adore Miss Maudie. She is like an aunt but they (Scout and Jem) clearly enjoy her company more than they do with Aunt Alexandra. Miss Maudie allows them to play anywhere in her yard as long as they don't kill the flowers. She makes cakes for them and when Jem and Dill are off doing "boys only" things, Scout goes to Miss Maudie: 

In summertime, twilights are long and peaceful. Often as not, Miss Maudie and I would sit silently on her porch, watching the sky go from yellow to pink as the sun went down, watching flights of martins sweep low over the neighborhood and disappear behind the schoolhouse rooftops. (Chapter 5) 

Scout discusses Miss Maudie at length in Chapter 5 and suggests that she is as much of a pal as an adult role model. This sums up how they feel about her: 

She had never told on us, had never played cat-and-mouse with us, she was not at all interested in our private lives. She was our friend. 

In Chapter 24, Aunt Alexandra gives Miss Maudie a silent "thank you" or nod of approval when she criticizes Mrs. Merriweather's racist hypocrisy. 

Atticus also admires and respects Miss Maudie for being open-minded and a decent role model for the children. She is also friends with Stephanie Crawford because that is who she stays with after her house burns down. In general, Miss Maudie is respected and liked or loved by the aforementioned people who are significant parts of her life.